语言学 Linguistics

What Is Cognitive Linguistics?

Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s. It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. Main Points in Cognitive Linguistics Construal and Construal Operations Categorization Image Schemas Metaphor Metonymy

Blending Theory

Construal and Construal Operations

Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc. Attention/ Salience Judgment/Comparison Perspective/Situatedness

Construal and Construal Operations : Attention/ Salience

The operation in salience have to do with our direction of attention towards sth. that is salient to us. In cognition, we direct our attention to the activation of conceptual structures. We use certain linguistic expressions to provoke certain patterns of activation. Construal and Construal Operations : Judgment/Comparison

The construal operations of judgment/ comparison have to do with judging sth. by comparing it to sth. else.

The figure-ground alignment apply to space, with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. Static and dynamic figure/ ground Trajector for a moving figure

Landmark for the ground of a moving figure Categorization

Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories. Basic level

Super-ordinate level Subordinate level Metaphor

Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of another. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. Lakoff and John classify conceptual metaphors into three categories

Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Structural metaphors Orientational metaphors Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors

Ontological metaphors means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc. as entities and substances. Three Categories of Metaphor Structural metaphors

Structural metaphors allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Three Categories of Metaphor Orientational metaphors

Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation Metonymy

Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain

Two Conceptual Configurations Whole ICM and its part(s) Parts of an ICM Metonymy

— Whole ICM and its part(s) Thing-and-Part ICM Scale ICM

Constitution ICM Event ICM

Category-and-Member ICM

Category-and-Property ICM Reduction ICM

Metonymy— Parts of an ICM Action ICM Perception ICM Causation ICM Production ICM Control ICM Possession ICM Containment ICM Location ICM

Sign and Reference ICMs Modification ICM

What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Blending Theory

Fauconnier and Turner propose and discuss blending or integration theory, a cognitive operation whereby elements of two or more “mental spaces” are integrated via projection into new, blended space which has its unique structure. Conditions are needed when two input spaces I1 and I2 are blended: Cross-Space Mapping Generic Space Blend

Emergent Structure

What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Image Schemas

Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Image Schemas A center-periphery schema A containment schema A cycle schema A force schema A link schema

A part-whole schema A path schema A scale schema

A verticality schema 类属空间

输入空间1 输入空间2 合成空间 施事 经历者

锋利的刀具 工作场所 程序

（目标、方式） 角色:外科医生 (外科医生身份) 角色:病人 (病人身份) 手术刀 手术室 目标:康复 方式:手术 角色:屠夫

角色:商品(动物) 屠刀 屠宰场 目标:切肉 方式:屠宰 外科医生身份 病人身份 切肉手术刀 手术室

目标：康复 方式：屠宰 不称职

Chapter 6.Language and Cognition What Is Cognition?

What Is Psycholinguistics? What Is Cognitive Linguistics? What Is Cognition? Definition

In psychology, the term cognition is used to refer to the mental process of an individual, with particular relation to a view that argues that the mind had internal states and can be understood in terms of in formation processing, especially when a lot of abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning at work.

Another definition is the mental process of faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment. What Is Cognition? Three Approaches The formal approach

It basically addresses the structural patterns exhibited by the overt aspect of linguistic forms, abstracted away from or regarded as autonomous from any associated meaning. The psychological approach

It looks at language from the perspective of relatively general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, and attention to reasoning. The conceptual approach.

It is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes by which conceptual content is organized in language. What Is Psycholinguistics?

Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary study , it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.

Text book P130-131: acquisition, comprehension, production, disorders, language and thought, neurocognition. Two Questions Concerned in Psycholinguistics

What knowledge of language is needed for us to use language? Tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge Language knowledge

Semantics, syntax, phonology, pragmatics

What cognitive processes are involved in the ordinary use of language? The Information Processing System sensory stores

Take in sensory stimuli for a brief time, in a raw, unanalyzed form . short-term memory/ working memory

Has both storage and processing functions. Permanent memory

Hold the knowledge of the world. This includes general knowledge and personal experience. What Is Psycholinguistics?

It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within psycholinguistics:

acquisition, comprehension, production, disorders, language and thought, neurocognition. Language Acquisition Holophrastic stage Two-word stage

Stage of three-word utterances

Fluent grammatical conversation stage Language Acquisition : Holophrastic stage

Two main features of lexical development in early language acquisition:

Most of their early words refer to concrete aspects of the immediate environment. Text book p. 132

Children at this stage also tend to use single words to express larger chunks of meaning that mature speakers would express in a phrase or sentence. Text Book P 132

Language Acquisition : Two-word stage

Children begin to put words together in systematic ways (primitive syntax begins), preferring some words to others and some orders to others.

Children know more than they are able to express. Language Acquisition : Three-word Stage

Children produce strings / three-word utterance containing all of its components in the correct order. Language Acquisition :

Fluent grammatical conversation stage

It is between the late tow-word and mid-three-word stage. Three-year olds obey grammatical rules a majority of the time.

Inflections and function words are more often used by Three-year olds than omitted in earlier sentences. Except for constructions that are rare, all parts of all language are acquired before the child turns four. Language Comprehension

Three Levels of speech processing Word recognition

Comprehension of sentences Comprehension of text Language Comprehension

Three Levels of speech processing

Discriminate auditory signals from other sensory signals and determine that the stimulus is something that we have heard.

identify the peculiar properties that qualify it as speech.

recognizing it as the meaningful speech of a particular language. Word recognition

The perception of spoken words Cohort model Interactive model Race model Pre-lexical route Lexical route

The perception of printed words The perception of spoken words Cohort model

Definition: Cohort model is a model of auditory word recognition in which listeners are assumed to develop a group of candidates, a word initial cohort, and then determine which member of that cohort corresponds to the presented word.

Two distinct aspects of spoken word recognition Recognize words very rapidly

Be sensitive to the recognition point

Cohort model—Three stages in Spoken word recognition

occurs in on the basis of an acoustic-phonetic analysis of the input, a set of lexical candidates is activated. This set is referred to as the word initial cohort.

one member of the cohort is selected for further analysis. Elimination takes place in two ways: Context and phonological information

the selected lexical item is integrated into the ongoing semantic and syntactic context. The perception of spoken words Cohort model

Interactive model (text book p136) Race model (text book p136) Pre-lexical route Lexical route

The perception of printed words:

Levels of written language processing

Feature level: Stimulus is represented in terms of physical features that comprise a letter of the alphabet. Letter level: the visual stimulus is represented more abstractly . An array of features and letters is recognized as familiar word. The perception of printed words:

Questions about orthography-to-phonology How linguistic structure is derived from print Lexical route Non-lexical route Connectionist model

Comprehension of sentences

Structural factors in comprehension Lexical factors in comprehension Serial models and parallel models Structural factors in comprehension Definition:

Interpreting sentence comprehension according to the grammatical constraints. Parsing strategies Late closure strategy

Attach new items to the current constituent. Minimal attachment strategy

Attach new items into the phrase marker being constructed using the fewest syntactic nodes Comprehension of sentences

Structural factors in comprehension

Lexical factors in comprehension Serial models and parallel models Comprehension of Text/Discourse Local discourse structure

the relationships between individual sentences in the discourse.

Global discourse structure

In order to understand the text, our general knowledge is connected to the text. Language Production Access to words

Generation of sentences Written language production Access to words

Spreading activation refers to the process by which one node in a semantic network, when active, activates related nodes.

Knowledge of words exists at three different levels. Conceptual level

Lemma level (syntactic aspect)

lexeme level (captures a word’s phonological properties ) Access to words

Major Types of Slips of the Tongue

shifts, one speech segment disappears from its appropriate location and appears somewhere else. Exchanges :two linguistic units exchange places.

Anticipations occur when a later segment takes the place of an earlier one. Perseverations occur when an earlier segment replaces a later item. Major Types of Slips of the Tongue Additions add linguistic material. deletions leave something out.

Substitutions occur when one segment is replace by an intruder.

Blends apparently occur when more then one word is being considered and the two intended items “fuse” of “blend” into a single item.

Common Properties of Speech Errors

Elements that interact with one another tend to come from similar linguistic environments. Elements that interact with one another tend to be similar to one another.

Even when slips produce novel linguistic items, they are generally consistent with the phonological rules of the language.

There consistent stress patterns in speech errors. Generation of Sentences

Speech production consists of four major stages Conceptualizing a thought Formulating a linguistic plan Articulating the plan

Monitoring one’s speech/ self monitoring. Independence of planning units The sequence of planning units Chuncking

Grouping individual pieces of information into larger units.